Adûnaic

From Tolkien Gateway

Adûnaic ("Language of the West"), or the native name Adûnayân, was the Númenórean language, spoken by the Men of Númenor during the Second Age.

Origins and family[edit | edit source]

Adûnaic was derived from the Hadorian tongue, related to the Bëorian—collectively called Taliska. It was more distantly related to the languages of the Middle Men of the east, such as the Men of Eriador and the Northmen.[1] During the First Age these languages were much influenced by Khuzdul,[2] Avarin, but also by the languages of the Eldar, as the Elf-friends spoke Sindarin.[3]

Despite it being a millennium or more after their separation, the Númenórean mariners who returned to Middle-earth in the Second Age could find common roots and words with the Middle Men of Eriador (related to the Folks of Beor and Hador), and talk about simple matters.[4] This is also partly due to the Númenórean longevity, and the slow change of their language.[5]

In the western districts of Númenor, the rustic folk still used another dialect, a last remnant of the Bëorian language.[6]

Taliska was not related to the Haladin tongue at all, therefore the Númenóreans did not recognise the peoples of Enedwaith and Minhiriath as their distant kin, who spoke unrelated languages.[7]

History[edit | edit source]

Adûnaic was generally considered to be a language of less prestige than the Elven tongues. Most locations of Númenor, and most of the lords and ladies of the Dúnedain, had also Quenya or Sindarin names beside their native ones.[8] Even most commoners knew Sindarin to some degree.

Most of the House of Bëor had been killed after the Dagor Bragollach,[9] but even during the Second Age a Bëorian accent of Adûnaic still survived in parts of Númenor, most notably in Emerië and around the harbour of Andúnië.

Days of pride[edit | edit source]

About 2,000 years into the Second Age, the Númenóreans began to envy the immortality of the Firstborn, which extended to the languages of the Elves; the Kings and their followers used the Elven tongues less and less. Though the Kings and Queens had all taken their names in Quenya, after some time their supporters used their Adûnaic names to refer to them.

Eventually Ar-Adûnakhôr took his name in Adûnaic and forbade anyone to speak the Elven tongues in his presence. Adûnaic was now the language of the royal court. Its supremacy was most strongly enforced by Ar-Gimilzôr: he outlawed the use of Elvish anywhere in Númenor, which antagonized the few Faithful Númenóreans still living in the land.

However, his son Inziladûn took a Quenya name again, Tar-Palantir, and repealed the ban on the Elven tongues and gave peace to the Faithful. His daughter Míriel would probably have continued his reforms, but her cousin Pharazôn seized power and, in addition, gave her an Adûnaic name (Ar-Zimraphel).[8]

Decline[edit | edit source]

In Middle-earth, the Faithful settlers (who controlled the shorelands of the Westlands from Lune to Pelargir), neglected their native tongue and favored Sindarin and devised names in it; no doubt as a reaction against the rebel Kings who banned the Elvish tongues. This was the case among the Faithful of high lineage who used Sindarin as their native tongue, and became a mark of Númenórean descent, while Adûnaic was left as the daily language of the illiterate, neglected to unheeded change. However some Númenóreans who had Sindarin as their mother tongue, learned this "vulgar" language when it was needed.[5]

In Belfalas, the Númenóreans didn't stop to use Adûnaic names, as for them the language didn't have the political connection to the King's Men and the rebellion against the Valar; their ancestors had settled there before the division of their people (c. S.A. 2221).[10]

With the Downfall of Númenor came the end of classical Adûnaic. The study and preservation of the language was neglected by the Exiles of Númenor, because they associated it with the rebellious and repressive Númenórean Kings.[11]

However, this debased tongue, spread from the early Númenórean sailors and colonists, continued to spread as their settlements increased in size and influence and met more peoples, who came under their rule. Those Men of different kinds used this language as a lingua franca among them. This process became of general importance after the Realms in Exile; from Eriador to Gondor the tongue became widely current, being adopted both by inhabitants and incomers, eventually becoming their native language, which they called Westron, widely spoken during the Third Age.[5][12][1]

Adûnaic continued to survive, at least in names in Belfalas and Dol Amroth.[10] Some members of the House of Dol Amroth were named in Adûnaic instead of Sindarin. It is probable that Prince Imrazôr, also known as "the Númenórean"[13][14], has an Adûnaic name.[15][note 1] The names of his descendants in the late Third Age, Adrahil and Imrahil[16], were also Adûnaic.[17]

Structure[edit | edit source]

The language called "classical Adûnaic" was spoken at the time of the Downfall of Númenor. It is not known at what time in the history of Númenor the classical form evolved from an earlier stage, nor when that language developed from the languages of the House of Hador and Bëor. However, the phonology and morphology of classical Adûnaic is fairly well documented, as is the phonology of its predecessor.[18]

(Ancient Adûnaic might be attested in the name Agathurush "Gwathló/Greyflood".[19] The sound sh occurred in ancient Adûnaic but developed into s in the classical period.[18] This might suggest that ancient Adûnaic was spoken when Aldarion discovered the mouth of Gwathló in the 730's.)

Phonology[edit | edit source]

Classical Adûnaic possesses 21 consonants:[18]

Consonants
Plosive p b t d k g
Nasal mh m nh n ng
Fricative ph th s z kh h
Lateral l
Tremulant r
Approximant v/w y

The consonants mostly have their classical sound values, with the following exceptions:

mh = voiceless "m"

nh = voiceless "n"

ph = bilabial "f"

th = as "th" in "thing"

kh = as "ch" in "Bach"

v/w = as "w" in "will"

y = as "y" in "yes"[18]

There are three basic vowels: i a u. These can be short or long; the long vowels are marked with a circumflex: î â û.[20]

From older ai and au evolved ê and ô. These vowels are always long – short e and o does not occur.[20] (Tolkien seems to omit the redundant circumflex on ê and ô in words like "Ar-Zimraphel"; Cf also the word roth "foam", which Tolkien gives the pronunciation key róþ.[21])

Morphology[edit | edit source]

Adûnaic words are based on roots that consist of one to three consonants and one characteristic vowel. Inflexions and derivations add infixes or affixes to these roots, but in all inflexions or derivations of a word the order of the consonants is consistent, and the characteristic vowel is always present (sometimes mutated into ê or ô).

This can be exemplified by the root GIMIL "star". From GIMIL is derived gimli "star", gimil "(all) the stars", igmil "star-shaped figure", gimlu-nitîr "star-kindler", Gimlad "Starwards", etc.[18]

Nouns[edit | edit source]

Strong and weak nouns[edit | edit source]

Adûnaic distinguishes between strong and weak nouns. Strong nouns are inflected by altering the final vowel of the root. Weak nouns are inflected by means of affixes.[22]

Gender[edit | edit source]

Nouns have one of four different genders: masculine, feminine, common and neuter. The masculine and feminine genders designate beings of male and female sex, common gender designates beings of unspecified sex, and neuter designates inanimate nouns.[22]

Case[edit | edit source]

Nouns are inflected in three cases: normal, subjective and objective.

The subjective case is used to emphasize the subject of a sentence. In sentences with a noun in the subjective case, the copula can be omitted.

The objective case is used for the first noun in compounds, when that noun can be regarded as the object of the second noun.

The normal case is used in all other contexts.[22]

Number[edit | edit source]

Nouns have three numbers: singular, dual and plural. Singular is used for a single item. Only the singular can be inflected in the objective case. Plural is used for larger numbers. Dual is used for "natural pairs" such as parents, the sun and moon etc.[22]

Examples of noun inflection[23][edit | edit source]

Strong inflection: zadan (neuter) 'house'
Normal Subjective Objective
Singular zadan zadân zadun-
Dual zadnat zadnât
Plural zadîn zadîna
Weak inflection: bâr (masculine) 'lord'
Normal Subjective Objective
Singular bâr bârun bâru-
Dual bârat bârât
Plural bârî bârîm

Verbs[edit | edit source]

Tense[edit | edit source]

Verbs are inflected in four tenses: aorist, past, continuative present and continuative past.[24] Since several of these tenses have overlapping meanings, it is not entirely clear which tense is which.

The aorist tense is used as present, future, or "historic present or past in narrative".[24] Some verbs seem to form aorist by the suffix -a: kalba 'fell'[25] (kalab 'to fall'[24]).

The significance of the past tense depends on the significance of the aorist in the same context: if the aorist tens signifies the past, then the past tense signifies pluperfect ("remote past"). If the aorist signifies the future, then the past tense signifies future perfect (past in relation to the future).[24] Some verbs seem to form the past tense by doubling the final root consonant and adding the suffix -a: kallaba 'fell'.[22]

Exactly how the continuative present and continuative past are used is not known. Some verbs seem to form the continuative present by changing the final root vowel to u and adding the suffix -i: kalubi 'lean over'.[26] An example of the continuative past might be azaggara 'was warring' (azgarâ 'to wage war').[24]

Number[edit | edit source]

Verbs agree in number with the noun they refer to. Plural verbs take the ending -m.

Person[edit | edit source]

If the subject of a verb is a personal pronoun, it is expressed by a pronominal prefix. Pronominal prefixes are often used in combination with an independent noun, e.g. bâr ukallaba 'the lord [he] fell'.[22] From the sources we can reconstruct an incomplete set of pronominal prefixes.

Pronominal prefixes
Singular Plural
1 p. ?nud 'on us'[26]
2 p. kitabdahê 'you touch me'[26]
3 p. masculine usaphda 'he understood'[27] yurahtam 'they rent'[26]
3 p. feminine hikallaba 'she fell'[26]
3 p. common yanâkhim 'they are at hand'[26]
3 p. neuter ayadda 'it went'[26]

Adjectives[edit | edit source]

Very little is known about Adûnaic adjectives. We know that they show number agreement: adjectives that refer to plural nouns take the ending : batîna lôkhî 'roads [are] crooked'.[26]

If the noun referred to takes the subjective case, a copula is assumed (see example above). If the noun takes the normal case, the adjective is an attribute of the noun: izindi batân 'straight road'.[26]

The adjective burôda is usually translated 'heavy'[26] but once 'very heavy'.[28] This might imply that adjectives are compared by altering the root vowels.

Etymology[edit | edit source]

Adûnaic is an Anglicized name of the language. The Númenóreans called their language Adûnayân.[29] Later Westron was called Adûni by its speakers.[30]

Inspiration[edit | edit source]

Adûnaic has a faintly Semitic flavour.[31] The triconsonantal structure of the majority of the word-bases of Adûnaic is reminiscent of Semitic. However, the vocalic arrangements in the word-bases do not resemble Semitic much.[32] Tolkien said the Númenórean language is based on Hebrew.[33]

Notes

  1. Paul Strack suggests that his name contains the same initial element Imra as in the name of Imrahil and the same final element zôr as in the name of Gimilzôr, which both have Adûnaic names. In addition records of the House of Dol Amroth mention that Galador, the son of Imrazôr and Mithrellas, one of the elven companions of Nimrodel, is an elven name, implying that Imrazôr was not an elven name.

References

  1. 1.0 1.1 J.R.R. Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings, Appendix F, "The Languages and Peoples of the Third Age", "Of Men"
  2. J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), The Peoples of Middle-earth, "Of Dwarves and Men", p. 317
  3. J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), The Silmarillion, "Quenta Silmarillion: Of the Coming of Men into the West"
  4. J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), Unfinished Tales, "Aldarion and Erendis: The Mariner's Wife"
  5. 5.0 5.1 5.2 J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), The Peoples of Middle-earth, "X. Of Dwarves and Men", "The Atani and their Languages"
  6. J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), The Peoples of Middle-earth, "X. Of Dwarves and Men", "Notes", #71
  7. J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), The Peoples of Middle-earth, "X. Of Dwarves and Men", "Notes", #72
  8. 8.0 8.1 J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), The Silmarillion, "Akallabêth: The Downfall of Númenor"
  9. J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), The Silmarillion, "Quenta Silmarillion: Of the Ruin of Beleriand and the Fall of Fingolfin"
  10. 10.0 10.1 J.R.R. Tolkien, Carl F. Hostetter (ed.), The Nature of Middle-earth, "Part Two. Body, Mind and Spirit: V. Beards", p. 189
  11. J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), The Peoples of Middle-earth, "Of Dwarves and Men", p. 315
  12. J.R.R. Tolkien; Humphrey Carpenter, Christopher Tolkien (eds.), The Letters of J.R.R. Tolkien, Letter 144, (dated 25 April 1954)
  13. J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), Unfinished Tales, "The History of Galadriel and Celeborn", "Amroth and Nimrodel"
  14. J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), The Peoples of Middle-earth, "VII. The Heirs of Elendil", The House of Dol Amroth
  15. Paul Strack, "Ad. Imrazôr m.", Eldamo - An Elvish Lexicon (accessed 27 April 2022)
  16. J.R.R. Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings, Appendix E, "Pronunciation of Words and Names", "Consonants", entry CH, p. 1113 and entry K, p. 1114
  17. J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), The Peoples of Middle-earth, "II. The Appendix on Languages", manuscript F2 The Languages at the end of the Third Age, paragraph §19 footnote
  18. 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), Sauron Defeated, "Part Three: The Drowning of Anadûnê: (vi) Lowdham's Report on the Adunaic Language: General Structure"
  19. J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), Unfinished Tales, "The History of Galadriel and Celeborn", "Appendix D: The Port of Lond Daer"
  20. 20.0 20.1 J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), Sauron Defeated, "Part Three: The Drowning of Anadûnê: (vi) Lowdham's Report on the Adunaic Language: The Adunaic Vowels"
  21. J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), The Peoples of Middle-earth, "XII. The Problem of Ros"
  22. 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), Sauron Defeated, "Part Three: The Drowning of Anadûnê: (vi) Lowdham's Report on the Adunaic Language: Declension of nouns"
  23. J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), Sauron Defeated, "Part Three: The Drowning of Anadûnê: (vi) Lowdham's Report on the Adunaic Language: Examples of Declension"
  24. 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), Sauron Defeated, "Part Three: The Drowning of Anadûnê: (vi) Lowdham's Report on the Adunaic Language: [Final section: Further material]"
  25. J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), Sauron Defeated, "Part Two: The Notion Club Papers: Major Divergences in Earlier Versions of Part Two, (iii) The earlier versions of Lowdham's 'Fragments' in Adunaic (Night 67)"
  26. 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 26.6 26.7 26.8 26.9 J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), Sauron Defeated, "Part Two: The Notion Club Papers Part Two: Night 67"
  27. J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), Sauron Defeated, "Part Three: The Drowning of Anadûnê: (vi) Lowdham's Report on the Adunaic Language: Assimilations in contact"
  28. J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), Sauron Defeated, "Arundel Lowdham's 'Fragments' (illustrations)"
  29. J.R.R. Tolkien, Carl F. Hostetter (ed.), The Nature of Middle-earth, "Part Three. The World, its Lands, and its Inhabitants: XI. Lives of the Númenóreans", p. 323
  30. J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), The Peoples of Middle-earth, "X. Of Dwarves and Men", "The Atani and their Languages", p. 316
  31. J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), Sauron Defeated, "Part Two: The Notion Club Papers Part Two: Night 66", p. 241
  32. J.R.R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (ed.), Sauron Defeated, "Part Three: The Drowning of Anadûnê: (vi) Lowdham's Report on the Adunaic Language: General Structure", p. 415
  33. Clyde S. Kilby, Tolkien and The Silmarillion, "2. Summer with Tolkien", p. 24

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